She was the sovereign of Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia, Mantua, Milan, Lodomeria and Galicia, the Austrian Netherlands and Parma. By marriage, she was Duchess of Lorraine, Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Holy Roman Empress. She started her 40-year reign when her father, Emperor Charles VI, died in October 1740. Charles VI paved the way for her accession with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and spent his entire reign securing it. Upon the death of her father, Saxony, Prussia, Bavaria, and France all repudiated the sanction they had recognised during his lifetime. Prussia proceeded to invade the affluent Habsburg province of Silesia, sparking a nine-year conflict known as the War of the Austrian Succession, and subsequently conquered it. Maria Theresa would later unsuccessfully try to reconquer Silesia during the Seven Years' War. Maria Theresa and her husband, Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, had sixteen children, including Queen Marie Antoinette of France, Queen Maria Carolina of Naples, Duchess Maria Amalia of Parma and two Holy Roman Emperors, Joseph II and Leopold II. Though she was expected to cede power to Francis and Joseph, both of whom were officially her co-rulers in Austria and Bohemia, Maria Theresa was the absolute sovereign who ruled by the counsel of her advisers. She criticised and disapproved of many of Joseph's actions. Although she is considered to have been intellectually inferior to both Joseph and Leopold, Maria Theresa understood the importance of her public persona and was able to simultaneously evoke both esteem and affection from her subjects.

Maria Theresa promulgated financial and educational reforms, with the assistance of Count Friedrich Wilhelm von Haugwitz and Gerard van Swieten, promoted commerce and the development of agriculture, and reorganised Austria's ramshackle military, all of which strengthened Austria's international standing. However, she refused to allow religious toleration and contemporaneous travellers thought her regime was bigoted and superstitious.  As a young monarch who fought two dynastic wars, she believed that her cause should be the cause of her subjects, but in her later years she would believe that their cause must be hers.

Sava was born Rastko Nemanjić (Растко Немањић, pronounced [râstkɔ nɛ̌maɲitɕ]), the youngest son of Serbian Grand Prince Stefan Nemanja (founder of the Nemanjić dynasty), and ruled the appanage of Hum briefly in 1190–1192. He became a monk in his youth, receiving the monastic name Sava (Sabbas), subsequently founding the monasteries of Hilandar on Mount Athos, and Žiča. In 1219 he was recognized as the first Archbishop of Serbs, by the Patriarch of Constantinople, and in the same year he authored the oldest known constitution of Serbia, Zakonopravilo, thus securing full independence; both religious and political. Sava heavily influenced Serbian medieval literature. He is widely considered as one of the most important figures of Serbian history, and is canonized and venerated by the Serbian Orthodox Church, as its founder, on January 27. His life and has been interpreted in many artistic works from the Middle Ages to modern times. He is the patron saint of Serbian schools and schoolchildren. The Cathedral of Saint Sava in Belgrade is dedicated to him, it was built on the scene where the Turks burnt his remains in the 16th century, following an uprising in which the Serbs used icon depictions of Sava as their war flags; the cathedral is currently the largest Eastern Christian church building in the world.
Rastko (from Rastislav) was born in 1169 or 1174, in Gradina (modern Podgorica, Montenegro). He was the youngest son of Grand Prince Stefan Nemanja and Anastasija. He is part of the first generation of the Nemanjić dynasty. In 1190–92, he was assigned the rule of Hum, which was previously held by his uncle Miroslav of Hum, who continued to hold the Lim region with Bijelo Polje while Rastko held Hum. When Rastko took monastic vows, Miroslav most likely continued as ruler of Hum.
Monastic vows n the autumn of 1192 (or shortly thereafter), he joined a Russian monk, giving alms to the St. Panteleimon monastery of Mount Athos, where he received the monastic name of Sava (Sabbas). They did not stay long, leaving for the Greek Vatopedi. His father sent messengers to Athos for the return of Sava to Serbia, but in vain. Sava replied to his father: "You have accomplished all that a Christian sovereign should do; come now and join me in the true Christian life".
The Karyes Typicon with the authentic signature of Saint Sava from 1199 – one of the oldest Serbian documents in the monastery of Hilandar, (detail)

Nemanja arrived at Mount Athos on March 25, 1195, and took monastic vows under the name Simeon. The father and son asked the Holy Community for the establishment of the Serbian religious base at the abandoned Chilandar, which they renovated, marking the beginning of cultural prospering (in arts; literature, and religion). His father Nemanja died in Hilandar on February 13, 1199, and was canonized as Saint Simeon. Nemanja had earlier decided to give the rule to Stefan (II) (henceforth referred to as Stefan), and not the eldest, Vukan. Sava built a church and cell at Karyes, where he stayed for some years, becoming a hieromonk, then an archimandrite in 1201. He wrote the Karyes Typicon during his stay, of which a marble inscription of his work still exist.

In the meantime, back home, Vukan began plotting against his brother Stefan; he found an ally in Emeric, the King of Hungary, and together they banished Stefan to Bulgaria, and Vukan usurped the Serbian throne. Stefan returned to Serbia with an army in 1204, and pushed Vukan to his maritime appanage in Zeta. After problems at the Holy Mountain with Latin bishops (Boniface of Montferrat), Sava returned to Serbia in the winter of 1205–06 or 1206–07, with the remains of his father which he relocated to the Studenica monastery, and reconciled his two brothers. Stefan asked him to remain in Serbia with his clerics, which he did, beginning a widespread pastoral and educational duty to the people of Serbia. He founded several churches and monasteries, among which was the Žiča monastery.

As an Ottoman vassal, Lazarevic was leader of Serbian auxiliary squads in battle of Rovine, Nicopolis and Angora. After the battle of Angora, Lazarevic received, from Byzantines in Constantinople, the title of despot in 1402. In the year 1403-1404 he became ally of Hungarian king Sigismund and received Mačva, Belgrade (which became Lazarevic's capital in 1405), Golubac and other domains, such as Srebrnica in 1411.Stefan II became an ally of the Kingdom of Hungary and a knight of a special order, so when the Hungarian king Sigismund renewed the Order of the Dragon (Societas draconistrarum) in 1408, Despot Stefan Lazarević was the first on the list of members.

After the Ottoman defeat on Angora, civil war erupted in the empire and also clashes among Serbian nobility. First, between Lazarević and Branković, secondly between Stefan and his younger brother Vuk. Clashes in Serbia has ended in 1412, with the conciliation of Stefan and his nephew Đurađ. After the death of Balša III Balšić, he inherited kingdom of Zeta and waged the war against Venetians. Since he didn’t have any children, on the assembly in Srebrnica (1426), Stefan proclaimed his nephew Đurađ Branković as his heir.

On the domestic front, he broke the resistance of the Serbian nobles, and used the periods of peace to strengthen Serbia politically, economically, culturally and military. On 29 January 1412 he issued the "Code of mines" (Законик о рудницима), with a separate section on governing of Novo Brdo – the largest mine in the Balkans at that time. This code increased the development of mining in Serbia, which has been the main economic backbone of Serbian Despotate. At the time of his death, Serbia was one of the largest silver producers in Europe. In the field of architecture, he continued development of Morava school.

He was a great patron of the arts and culture by providing shelter and support to scholars from Serbia, and refugees from neighboring countries that have been taken by the Ottomans. In addition, he was himself a writer, and his most important work is "A Homage to Love," which is characterized by the Renaissance lines. Beside despot’s literature work, in this period there were other authors such as Constantine the Philosopher and Gregory Tsamblak. During his reign Resava school has been formed.
Stefan Lazarević married Jelena in September 1405. Jelena was daughter of Francesco II Gattilusio, Genovesian lord of Lesbos and a sister of Irene Gattilusio, empress of Byzantium empire and a wife of John VII Palaiologos. This marriage was arranged during his stay in Constantinople in 1402, at a time when the city and the Byzantine Empire ruled John VII in the name of his uncle, Manuel II (1373-1391 ruler, Emperor 1391-1425). Jelena and Stefan had no children and Jelena is not shown on any frescoes in monasteries built by Stefan.

Stefan Nemanjić was the second eldest son of Grand Prince Stefan Nemanja and Anastasija. His older brother and heir apparent, Vukan, ruled over Zeta and the neighbouring provinces (the highest appanage) while his younger brother Rastko (later known as Saint Sava) ruled over Hum.

The Byzantines attacked Serbia in 1191, raiding the banks of South Morava. Nemanja had a tactical advantage, and began to raid the Byzantine armies. Isaac II Angelus summoned a peace treaty, and the marriage of Nemanja's son Stefan to Eudokia Angelina, the niece of Isaac II, was confirmed. Stefan Nemanjić received the title of sebastokrator.
Heir apparent conflict
In an inscription dated 1195 in the church of St. Luke in Kotor, Vukan is titled as King of Duklja, Dalmatia, Travunia, Toplica and Hvosno.
Saint Sava (Rastko, his brother) and Saint Simeon (Stefan Nemanja, his father), founders of the Serbian Church.

Although Vukan was Nemanja's eldest son, Nemanja preferred to see Stefan II on the Serbian throne mostly because Stefan was married to Byzantine princess Eudokia. It seems that Vukan reacted on this change in succession by declaring himself King of Duklja. Although he assumed a "sovereign" royal title, Vukan remained under his father's authority. On 25 March 1196, Stefan Nemanja summoned a Council in Ras, where he officially abdicated in favour of his second son, Stefan, to whom he bequeathed all his earthly possessions. This decision was not in accordance with the traditional right of primogeniture, according to which Vukan should inherited the throne. This was not accepted lightly by Vukan. Nemanja took monastic vows in the Church of Saints Peter and Paul and adopted the monastic name of Simeon. Simeon subsequently retired to his Studenica monastery and Anastasia retired to the Monastery of the Mother of Christ in Kuršumlija. After numerous pleas by Sava (originally Rastko), Simeon left to the Mount Athos, and joined Sava in 1197 in the Vatopedi monastery. In 1199, the two together rebuilt the ruined Eastern Orthodox Monastery of Hilandar given to the Serbian people by the Byzantine Emperor, which became the heart of Serbian spiritual culture. Simeon died on 13 February 1199.

While Nemanja was alive Vukan didn't oppose Stefan's rule but as soon as Nemanja died, he started to plot against him in order to become Grand Prince. He found aid in Hungarian king Emeric (1196–1204) who at the time fought against the Second Bulgarian Empire and wanted assistance. With the help of Hungarian troops in 1202, Vukan managed to overthrow Stefan, who fled into Bulgaria. Vukan was left to rule Serbia.[1] In an inscription dating to 1202–1203, Vukan is titled as "Grand Župan Vukan, Ruler of all Serbian land, Zeta, maritime towns and land of Nišava".

In return for Hungarian help, Vukan became a Hungarian vassal and promised that he would convert to Catholicism if the Pope would give him the title of King. However, as a Hungarian vassal, Vukan soon got involved in the conflict with Bulgaria. In 1203 the Bulgarian army attacked Vukan, annexing Niš. In the chaos that followed, and using Vukans's sympaties for Catholicism against him, Stefan managed to return to Serbia and overthrow Vukan in 1204 becoming ruler again. Vukan was pushed into his holdings of Zeta.

In the meantime, Bishop Sava (the youngest brother), had success on Mount Athos, founding the cradle of Serbian Christianity. Sava returns to Serbia in the winter of 1205–06 or 1206–07, and intervenes and reconciles his two brothers, taking the remains of his father with him, which he relocates to the Studenica monastery. Stefan II asks him to remain in Serbia with his clerics, which he does, starting a widespread pastoral and educational duty to the people of Serbia. He and Sava founds several churches and monasteries, among them the Žiča monastery.

Vukan continues to rule as titular King in Zeta, and abdicated in ca 1208, when his son Đorđe is mentioned as titular King of Zeta, although in edicts from Studenica dated 1209, he is mentioned only as Great Prince. Vukan seems to have died in 1209 or shortly thereafter.